Wanted: Glycerine By-Product

Introduction

Worldwide market for biodiesel is poised for explosive growth in the next decade. The sharp rise in biofuels has created an increasing supply of glycerol.

Glycerine also known as Glycerol has many commercial and industrial uses, and is generally considered a relatively valuable product. In order to both improve the economics of biodiesel production process and put this waste stream to good use, new markets must be found. There are several ways in which this might happen, but biodiesel producers need to make this a priority if they are to reap the benefits of this unused resource.

Biodiesel is a fast growing product in both the United States and Europe as government policies seek to spur the development of renewable transportation fuels. In the US alone since 2004, biodiesel production has grown from 75 million gallons per year to 650 million gallons per year in 2008 (Biodiesel 2020, 2008). While the production of biodiesel is beginning to have an effect on the liquid fuels market, it has already had an enormous effect on the market for another product, glycerol.

When bio-crude goes through the transesterification process to become biodiesel, a significant amount of glycerol is produced as a by-product of the chemical reaction. This transesterification process yields 100kg of glycerol for every metric tonne of biodiesel produced, a 10% yield (Glycerol Challenge, 2009). Total world biodiesel production in 2008 was estimated to be roughly 12.24 million metric tonnes, and this number is rapidly growing (Biodiesel 2020, 2008). This means that 1.224 million metric tonnes of crude glycerol was produced from the biodiesel conversion processes alone. The total world market for refined glycerol was estimated to be roughly 900,000 metric tonnes in 2005 (Impact of Biodiesel Production on the Glycerol Market, 2006). It is apparent that we are already facing a global glut of glycerol, a glut which is certain to worsen before it can improve.

Compare this market effect to the market for one of the major by-products of the distillation of ethanol from corn, dried distillers grains and solvents (DDGS). DDGS are commonly used in animal feeds around the world, and have select additional uses. With the recent ramping up in corn-based ethanol production throughout the world, mostly occurring in the U.S., DDGS stocks have risen sharply. However, looking at overall potential U.S. demand for DDGS, there seems to still be some room for market growth in this area, which will continue to keep the economics of ethanol more attractive until it hits this ceiling and DDGS prices begin to fall. The table attached below shows the global markets for both glycerol and DDGS (Christiansen, 2009). 

These estimates are a simplification, as the true markets are slightly different, but they depict the overall trend accurately. The crude glycerol market is tapped out at the moment, but not necessarily for the reasons that we might initially suppose.

Economic Factor 

This market glut has had a mixed effect on prices of glycerol worldwide depending upon whether one looks at the crude or refined product. Glycerol taken from the biodiesel production process is about 80% pure, whereas refined glycerol is at 99.5% purity, after undergoing a highly energy intensive refining process. With the rapid rise in the availability of crude glycerol worldwide due to biodiesel production, there has been a refining bottleneck, as current refineries have hit the limits of their capacity. As such, the prices for refined glycerol have not varied inversely with biodiesel production, as might be expected. Instead, prices halved between 2003 and 2006, while growing 69% between July 2007 and July 2008 as a result of other exogenous factors (Soyatech, 2008). Prices for crude glycerol, on the other hand, have fallen through the floor, dropping close to zero and even negative as producers are forced to pay to have it taken away from their plants and incinerated (Impact of Biodiesel Production on the Glycerol Market, 2006). This may only be a short term trend, however. Glycerol is not a waste product, and in fact has been a staple chemical compound in the world economy for many years. There is reason to believe that as refining capacity catches up to the supply of the crude product, and new uses for glycerol are found, its price may rebound, potentially improving the economics of biodiesel production.

Uses of Glyrecol 

Glycerol is used for a variety of purposes across many different industries. The following is a list of current uses of glycerol:

• Food – glycerol is used as an artificial sweetener, especially in low-fat foods, since it is better for blood pressure than sugar. It is also used as a thickening agent and an ester in shortenings and margarine. It also can be used as a substitute ingredient in animal feed.
• Basic Materials – Glycerol be used as a substitute for petroleum-based polypropelene, a textile, and in both rigid and flexible industrial foams. It is also used as a building block for many different kinds of industrial chemicals.
• Pharmaceuticals – Used as an additive in cough syrup, toothpaste, skin care, hair care soap and many others.
• Explosives – The compound nitroglycerin, made with glycerol, is commonly used in all types of explosives.
• Other – Used as an ingredient in antifreeze, hydraulic fluids, plasticizers (List assembled from many different sources)

While glycerol appears to be quite a versatile substance, one that might be able to withstand slack demand in any one or two categories, it is unclear whether any of these markets possess the necessary elasticity to soak up the extra supply due to biodiesel production. The falling price of crude glycerol could cause some glycerol-based products to substitute for other similar products derived from other sources, but this market shift is not guaranteed to happen, and its magnitude is impossible to predict. But the bottoming of the glycerol market has led to increasing focus on finding these substitutes.

Other Uses

Sheeps being fed Glycerine

  ->As Animal Feed

 

For instance, researchers at the University of Arkansas’ Center of Excellence for Poultry Science have initiated studies that substitute glycerol in chicken feed. The study showed that up to 5% substitution of glycerol in chicken feed showed no negative effects on growth. Given the immense volume of the global poultry feed market, not to mention the entire animal feed market, this is a huge potential growth area for refined glycerol. While this will not necessarily provide direct benefits to a biodiesel producer, since this application depends upon a low price of crude and refined glycerol, this does provide larger economic benefits to society.

-> Energy Feedstock

An even greater upside to the bottoming of glycerol prices has been exploration into its use as an energy feedstock for example as fuel for diesel engines. As reported in TCE magazine in an article "(E)mission Impossible" by Paul Day, John McNeil and Felix Sirovski. 

Problems with using it as a fuel in diesel engines: Glycerine seems to be barely combustible, too viscous and if combusted, produces lots of toxic acrolein which ends up clogging the exhaust with polymers. But these guys have an actual standard 40 kWh Deutz engine running on glycerine by just increasing both the inlet air temperature during engine operation from 60°C to 200°C and mass flow. This overcomes the problem glycerine poses on the diesel engine.

In fact, it was found that glycerine is a better fuel, Firstly because it is not toxic as mentioned before that it is used as a sweetener in liqueurs. Secondly, it is water soluble, easy to wash away if spilled. Thirdly, it is nearly impossible to ignite under normal conditions which gives it a two thumbs up for safety. As for Its viscosity, at 90°C, the viscosity drops dramatically to a level similar to fuel oil of 13 centistokes.

Compare glycerine to other fuels, its calorific value is not that high. Its a mere 16.2MJ/kg whilst diesel has 42MJ/kg and Biodiesel has 37.8MJ/kg. The comparison of prices does not look too bad, in fact, it could be relatively cheaper fuel especially with Renewable Obligation Certificates(ROC) in the UK and other Renewable commitments in Europe. 

Conclusion

The above post suggest that there is still potential for the economics of the biodiesel conversion process to improve if more markets can be found for crude and refined glycerol. This is a valuable and versatile feedstock with many different uses, not only for high-value uses, but also potentially as an energy feedstock which needs for research. It is important that biodiesel producers focus as much on their by-products are their core products if they seek to maximize the value and efficiency of the conversion process. Glycerol production is only going to increase, so it is important for us to find something useful to do with it.

Future uses of silk

Silk Material Science

I came across this field of Silk material science a few weeks ago. When i read the articles and reports on some of the amazing stuff coming from TUFTS University, i had to share it with the world.

The main person behind this research:

Background
Fiorenzo Omenetto is a Professor of Biomedical Engineering and leads the laboratory for Ultrafast Nonlinear Optics and Biophotonics at Tufts University and also holds an appointment in the Department of Physics. Formerly a J. Robert Oppenheimer Fellow at Los Alamos National Laboratory before joining Tufts, his research is focused on interdisciplinary themes that span nonlinear optics, nanostructured materials (such as photonic crystals and photonic crystal fibers), optofluidics and biopolymer based photonics. He has published over 100 papers and peer-review contributions across these various disciplines.

Since moving to Tufts at the end of 2005, he has proposed and pioneered (with David Kaplan) the use of silk as a material platform for photonics, optoelectronics and high-technology applications. This new research platform has recently been featured in MIT's Technology Review as one of the 2010 "top ten technologies likely to change the world."

Read more about his research by clicking the link here. They are specifically interested in engineered and biomimetic optical materials (such as photonic crystals and photonic crystal fibers) and novel/unconventional organic, sustainable optical materials for photonics and optoelectronics.

In particular, there is close collaboration with their own biopolymer expert, they have pioneered silk optics and are re-inventing silk as a green material for photonics and high technology applications.

TED Talks video

The video below shows Fiorenzo Omenetto  who shares 20+ astonishing new uses for silk, one of nature's most elegant materials -- in transmitting light, improving sustainability, adding strength and making medical leaps and bounds. On stage, he shows a few intriguing items made of the versatile stuff.

I think we have a promising future ahead of us, we need to spend more effort and time into research that could revolutionize the world we live in. Tell me what you think?

Biofuel Part IV - Sustainability Issues

SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES

http://www.rodomotion.com/2010/08/20/52/

When we are dealing with sustainability there are three common areas that to be discussed namely social, economic and environmental. The diagram above clearly represents the three parts of sustainability, with a brief description of each. Also observe how they overlap and depend on each other to some extent. Sustainability is actually a complex issue hidden by its apparent simplicity.

SOCIAL & ECONOMIC ISSUES

The industrial revolution in UK and USA and rest of the world has changed our social structure and standards of living for the better(mostly). The changing of energy source has a great impact on people’s lives and social behaviour. For example during the industrial revolution, coal was the primary fuel used to provide towngas to power street lights and power most of modes of transport. There is a historic relationship between coal mining and the development of industrialized countries today.

Non-industrialised countries however does not have this progressive stages as they jumped into relatively cheap oil being available in the 1950s which also happens to be the same time many countries obtained independence from colonialism. The world has since moved on from coal to petroleum based fuels which may not be much cleaner but it has made cheap fuel available to the average car owner leading to great changes in lifestyle[1].

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

The production of biofuels could unintentionally lead to negative environmental and social impacts. Potential competition with food crops may lead to increased commodity prices and increased demand for land may lead directly to deforestation to make way for new plantations. Biofuel production are also associated with social concerns such as labour rights, land conflicts and health concerns related to improper use of agrochemicals. Looking on the bright side of it, biofuel demand can create local economic benefits and bring about employment opportunities[2].

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Agriculture & Forestry

Production of biomass to be used to convert to energy is closely related with wider policies and practices for agriculture and forestry. The main consideration with such use is to make sure it is ecologically sustainable. It has to be renewable source of energy which means areas cleared to be used must be regrown later on. Biomass production for energy must not be at the expense of growing enough food to feed the world population which is only ethical[3].

We also have European Union and the USA facing problems with agriculture such as over-production of food, which is actively, encouraged by agriculture 1 subsidies. Such subsidies increase general taxes and the resulting surpluses affect world trade to the advantage of developing countries. In order to solve this problem, the European Union set aside land to maintain it unproductively or for growing biomass for energy. Such policies uphold the social benefits of an economically active rural population while at the same time bring environmental benefits by substituting biofuels for fossil fuels.

A major byproduct of agriculture and forestry is the waste biomass that is just thrown away but second generation biofuel technology can be used to convert these waste cellulosic biomass into useful bioethanol. The undesirable outputs of agriculture such as manure from intensive piggeries or farm animals can be biodigested to produce syngas bringing economic and environmental benefits for the rural population. Successful biofuel production facilities can utilize concentrated flows of biomass such as sawdust from sawmilling, straw from crops, and manure from penned animals and sewage from municipal works.

Developments in energy conversion from local crops are most likely going to be socially acceptable at the same time biomass used to replace fossil fuel use will bring about greenhouse gas benefits. Therefore it is desirable to achieve sustainable agriculture and forestry[4]. However greenhouse gas benefits of biofuel will depend on the system of cultivation, processing and transportation of feedstock.

Pollution

Biofuels fall under the renewable energy category as it is extracted from the flow of energy which already exists in the environment. The energy is then returned to the environment as it burns very efficiently producing nothing more than carbon dioxide and water. Minimum amount of air, water, thermal pollution may occur from material and chemical aspects but it is still in favour over fossil and nuclear fuels[5].

OTHER RELATED ISSUES

Food vs. Fuel debate

This is very appropriate

The main problem associated with first generation biofuel technology is the usage of food crops for the production of biofuels. It can be seen from history that liquid biofuels have been based on biomass obtained from grain, sugar and oil crops which are all important food crops, generally grown on the most fertile agricultural land available[6].

World population increases every year which means more food has to be produced to feed the increased population, those displaced by wars and those are just too poor to feed themselves. It is ironic because in European countries and the USA every year there are crop production surpluses going to waste while in some developing countries where people are starving, crops are exported out to developed countries for revenue. This is slightly out of topic and I am not trying to defend biofuel production but the reason why there is still a proportion of the world population starving everyday is because food is not efficiently distributed around the world.

However increasing worldwide demand for food indicates that these crops should not be diverted significantly for energy production, as we need to set our priorities right which is to eradicate world hunger. In order for biofuel production to be a major contributor to world energy supplies, the feedstock and land cannot be related to food. For example there is a need to push for a cheaper, more energy efficient process for producing bioethanol from easily available lignocellulosic materials such as corn stalks, straw, wood, sawdust and other woody residues rather than from food crops[7]. This will be widely accepted by everyone including the most cynical critique of biofuels.

Support for Biofuels

Bioethanol from corn...literally

There needs to be support from the public and governments of the world to bring biofuels to a whole new level and to reduce usage of fossil fuels. Biofuels industry has the potential to create over a million jobs in the US alone and add over $50 billion to the economy each year[8]. Governments can encourage the use of biofuels by having smaller tax on biofuels than on fossil fuels. This will not be useful if the amount of biofuel blended in the total fuel mix is small unless there is a mandatory requirement for all transport fuels to be sold with a certain percentage of biofuel. Policy changes towards biofuels should be encouraged such as introducing subsidies to producers of biofuel as part of the general agricultural subsidies[9].

 

CONCLUSION

The only constant in this world is change and the influence of modern science and technology will always ensure to older technology. It is hard to predict the long term effects of changing our energy supply but the sustainable nature of biofuels should be a great boon for the world in providing a better socio-economic stability[10]. The only way out of the current situation is to move forward and embrace biofuels technology.

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[1] Twidell J., Weir T., Weir A.D., Renewable Energy Resources (2006) Taylor and Francis (2006) Chapter 1.6 Social Implications

[2] Department of Transport – Carbon and Sustainability reporting within the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation, Jan 2008 Section 2: Biofuels and the Environment pp 18. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/environment/rtfo/govrecrfa.pdf

[3], [4] Twidell J., Weir T., Weir A.D., Renewable Energy Resources (2006) Taylor and Francis (2006) Chapter 11.11.1 – Bioenergy in relation to agriculture and forestry: pp 389

[5], [6], [7] Twidell J., Weir T., Weir A.D., Renewable Energy Resources (2006) Taylor and Francis (2006) Chapter “ food vs. fuel”

[8] Tickell J., Roman K., Tickell K., From the Fryer to the Fuel Tank (2000) Biodiesel America, The Solution: Renewable Fuels pp 21

[9], [10] Twidell J., Weir T., Weir A.D., Renewable Energy Resources (2006) Taylor and Francis (2006) pp393 

Follow up with this four part series on BIOFUELS by clicking the link below:
Part I, Part II , Part III, Part IV

Biofuels Part III - Types and Sources

BIOFUEL PRODUCTION TYPES & SOURCES

Biofuels can be classified in two ways, firstly by the state at which the fuel exists in their natural form which are mainly gas, liquid or solid. And secondly by the sources they have been produced from and the technology used to produce them. In this literature review, biofuels have been classified according the second way. 

FIRST GENERATION – (food crops)

First generation biofuels are derived from food crops such as starch, sugar and vegetable oil using conventional techniques discussed later on. Several types of first generation biofuels are discussed briefly below.

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is probably the most common and most popular type of biofuel in the world because it also is the easiest to produce from ordinary vegetable oil. Biodiesel is produced very simply by combining any type of oil or biomass with methanol and sodium hydroxide[1]. It can be used on any diesel engine without any changes to it by mixing with mineral diesel as was described earlier in the “History of Biofuels” section. 

There has a been great interest shown by European countries and the USA, the graphs below show a rising trend of biodiesel production is USA and many countries of Europe.

Figure 7 - Source: National Biodiesel Board

Figure 8 - Source: European Biodiesel Board

Biogas & Syngas

Biogas is produced from organic materials by anaerobic digestion. Waste materials which are biodegradable can also produce biogas if they are fed into anaerobic digesters[2]. The resulting biomass can be used as fertiliser for agricultural usage. Biogas is rich in methane gas which can be recovered and used as burning fuel. Methane gas is also produced by the natural decay of garbage dumps over time. Another process to produce Syngas or biosyngas is by gasification of biomass into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Hydrogen can be recovered from syngas or the syngas can be converted to diesel fuel using Fischer-Tropsch process[3].

Bioalcohols (bioethanol)

Enzymes and micro-organisms are used to produce alcohols through the process of fermentation of starches and sugar[4]. Ethanol being the most common of those bioalcohol as in bioethanol produced from sugar cane in Brazil. A significant amount of ethanol is also produced from sugar beets and corn by fermentation in other parts of the world.   

SECOND GENERATION (non food crops)

Second generation of biofuels had been developed to use biomass left from the non-food parts of current crops such as stems, leaves and husks left behind after the important parts of the crop has been taken. It also includes biomass from non food crops such as Jatropha plant (which are toxic), switch grass and industrial waste such as wood chips, skin and pulp from fruit pressings. This generation of biofuels is not cost competitive with existing fossil fuels, do not threaten food supplies and biodiversity[5].

THIRD GENERATION (algaculture)

Third generation biofuels is obtained from algae and this is also called advanced biofuel. Algae is easy to grow and it is a high-yielding feedstock for the production of biofuel as it produces 30 times more energy per acre of land than traditional crops such as corn or soybean[6]. They are biodegradable so it is environmentally friendly. Similar to obtaining the oil from vegetation, algae contains almost 40-50% oil which is squeezed out and the remaining biomass can be used as fertilizer or high protein animal feed. The oil from algae can be converted to biodiesel.

 

FOURTH GENERATION (biodiesel to gasoline)

Last but not least is fourth generation biofuels which is still undergoing research at the highest levels. The main aim is to convert biodiesel into gasoline similar to the one obtained from petroleum but it will be much cleaner with less harmful emissions. This is similar to how natural gas or methane is converted to petrol. However there is much more study required in this part and will probably not be available in 10-20 years time.

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[1] Biofuel Organisation:  http://biofuel.org.uk/first-generation-biofuels.html

[2] Biofuel Organisation:  http://biofuel.org.uk/first-generation-biofuels.html

[3] Lee S., Lee L., Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing, CRC Press (2005), “Biofuels and Bioenergy” pp123

[4] Biofuel Organisation:  http://biofuel.org.uk/first-generation-biofuels.html

[5] RenewableEnergy.com News Article: Next generation of biofuels; http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/story?id=49099

[6] Washington Post News Article; http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/03/AR2008010303907.html  

Follow up with this four part series on BIOFUELS by clicking the link below:
Part I, Part II , Part III, Part IV

Biofuels Part II - Case Study and Usage

CASE STUDY AND USAGE

 In this section, several cases around the world are studied where biofuel production has been successful and where alternative to petroleum based fuels is in dire need. More importantly, there is emphasis on emerging economic powers of the world such as China, India and Brazil because in the near future these countries will have greatest need for fuels.

 

CASE STUDY 1 - Brazilian Ethanol Programme

Brazil is a leading example of how a successful biofuel programme can help the economy grow as it has a very large national production of bioethanol from sugar cane. For many years, bioethanol has been used in blends with traditional fossil fuels as liquid transportation fuels. In 2005, it was announced that Brazil and USA were the world’s two leading ethanol fuel producers, each producing about 45% of the global supply[i].

It all began after the 1970s fuel crisis for Brazil, as it turned to ethanol to become energy independent thanks to vast amounts of land available for sugarcane plantations. Ethanol is also known as ethyl alcohol and when blended in with unleaded petrol, it increases the fuels performances and at the same time decreasing harmful emissions[ii]. Vehicles in Brazil do not run on pure petrol anymore. Ever since 1977, it was made compulsory to blend 20% ethanol with petrol which meant E20 category and this required a slight change to the normal petrol engine. Nowadays, the compulsory level has become anywhere between 20% and 25% ethanol which is used in all regular vehicles. The most amazing thing is there are 3 million cars running on 100% hydrated bioethanol and six million vehicles fitted with flex-fuel capability. A major Brazilian car manufacturer came up with full flexible-fuel vehicles which are able to run on any proportion of ethanol and petrol[iii]. The ethanol powered “flex” vehicles are manufactured to tolerate hydrated ethanol which comprises of 95.6% ethanol and 4.4% water[iv].

Figure 4 - Source: Goldemberg J, Coelho S T, Nastari P M and Lucon O 2003 Ethanol learning curve - the Brazilian experience Biomass Bioenergy 26/3 301–4

CASE STUDY 2 – China’s Biofuel initiative

China’s energy sector and economy will face a great problem ahead in the future if they are not able to embrace the biofuel technology quickly. There is an ever increasing demand for oil and power from this largely populated country. Currently China is already one of the largest consumers of fossil fuels worldwide; consuming a total of about 60-70 million tones of fossil fuels every year, about one-third of it being imported[v].

To understand China’s stance on biofuels, we take a look back in history. During World War II, China used to produce diesel fuel, lubricating oils, gasoline and kerosene from Tung and other vegetable oils by cracking process[vi]. After the war, they have reverted back to conventional fossil fuels as well as unconventional fossil fuels such as those derived from coal. In fact majority of the energy provided to households in China is by coal fired power plants even today while majority of transportation fuels are fossil fuels.

Only recently the Chinese government has shown interest in biofuel production by building the largest Bioethanol production in Changchun [Jilian Province] plant with the capacity to produce 600000tons of Bioethanol per year[vii]. Furthermore the Centre for Renewable Energy Development (CRED) in Beijing is working together with Austrian Biofuels Institute and Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) from INCO-programme of the European Union. This study was conducted to find out the different feedstock available in China for Biodiesel production namely rapeseed oil, cottonseed oil and used frying oils[viii]. Two biofuels are being produced and used in China bioethanol from maize and biodiesel from cooking oils and fat residues. A 10% ethanol blend with petrol is already being in 10 provinces in China which has been made mandatory by the government. The government has been enthusiastically promoting biofuels which they see as a solution to their energy security, rural development and pollution problems[ix]. In 2007, China produced 1.6 million tones of bioethanol, the figure below shows how bioethanol production has risen from 2002 to 2007.

Figure 5 - China's Fuel Ethanol production 2002-2007 (x1000tons) Source: 2002 to 2006 NDRC (2008); 2007: Research and Market Biofuels Report (2008)

CASE STUDY 3 – Worldwide Jatropha plantation programme

One of the major problems associated with biofuels is the Food vs. Fuel dilemma especially in the production of 1^st generation biofuels which is discussed further in the next sections. Therefore research was conducted to produce biofuels from non-food crops and particular plant oil was of interest, Jatropha. In fact it was so successful that many countries in Asia, Africa and the Americas had started plantations.

It all started in India when Jatropha Carcus-“Honduras” were carried in by Portuguese sailors a few hundred years ago. They were planted around other valuable plantations as a fence because animals and insects were repelled away from it. Meanwhile, Indian farmers found out that the nut contained oil which they used in their oil lamps. Over the years, these farmers bred the plant to have higher oil content as high as 40-50%. India has always been interested to produce biofuels however it had to come from non-food crops. The Biodiesel produced required certain characteristics for example it had to come from non-food crops and grown in non-prime agricultural land. Jatropha fulfilled these requirements as it is resistant to droughts, requiring minimum use of pesticides and fertilizers. Jatropha plants are very hardy and grow very fast producing seeds for extraction within a few months. The picture below shows how fast the plant grows in a tropical country such as Malaysia.

Figure 6 - Growth of Jatropha in 7 days. "1 Hingga 7 Hari": 1 to 7 days

The success of Jatropha has spread everywhere and major projects are being undertaken in most developing countries such as Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Mali, Paraguay and many more.      

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[i] [ii] Paul B., Paul Henry W., Future Energy: How the new oil industry will change people, politics and portfolios, John Wiley and Sons (2007) pp56

[iii] ICIS.COM News Article: Brazil’s flex-fuel car production rises, boosting ethanol consumption to record highs; http://www.icis.com/Articles/2007/11/12/9077311/brazils-flex-fuel-car-production-rises-boosting-ethanol-consumption-to-record-highs.html

[iv] Goettemoeller, Jeffrey; Adrian Goettemoeller (2007), Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence, Praire Oak Publishing, Maryville, Missouri, pp. 42, ISBN 978-0-9786293-0-4

[v], [vi], [vii], [viii], Knothe G, Jon Harlan Van Gerpen, Krahl J (2005) The Biodiesel handbook, AOCS Press, University of Michigan USA pp 206

[ix] Biofuels – At What Cost? Government support for ethanol and biodiesel in China (Nov 2008), Global Subsidies Initiative of the International Institute of Sustainable Development. http://www.globalsubsidies.org/en/research/biofuel-subsidies-china

Follow up with this four part series on BIOFUELS by clicking the link below:
Part I, Part II , Part III, Part IV
 

Biofuels Part I - Intro & History

INTRODUCTION

There is an ever increasing demand for oil and the world is already struggling with high prices, international insecurity and environmental anxiety as it tries to meet the current demands for oil. An alternative to petroleum based fuels is required to overcome all of these problems. The fascinating concept of turning biomass into a combustible fuel or biofuel has been around for a very long time but it has not received the attention it deserves mainly due to lower oil prices over half a century ago. However the time has come when it can no longer be swept below the carpet as we enter a new level of consciousness about our fuel consumption and awareness about the impact n the environment.   

This literature review is an attempt to merely address these issues regarding biofuel production, their usage and their impact on a global scale.

 

Figure 1-Burning fossil fuels releasing billions of tons of CO2

Figure 2 - Coal mining destroying the environment and natural beauty

HISTORY OF BIOFUELS

The fact must be acknowledged that biofuels technology has been researched and shown to be workable before the world plunged into the fuel crisis of the 1970s. Only after the fuel crisis a few decades ago which involved major oil producing countries cutting the supply of petroleum based products in order to drive the price of oil up by almost $40, that the world renewed its interest in alternative fuel technologies. This is good news for the environment because we can avoid scenes in the Middle East such as the picture shown below where natural gas is burnt off before crude oil can be extracted, creating so much pollution.

Figure 3 - Oil wells in the Middle East burning off natural gas

Nearly more than a century ago, in the Paris Exposition in 1900 the first successful use of biofuels was demonstrated in a diesel engine by Rudolf Diesel apparently operating on peanut oil[i]. Rudolf Diesel, the inventor of the diesel engine showed interest in biofuels however the early history of biofuels has been presently inconsistently. It is only appropriate to include a statement made by Diesel in chapter called “Liquid Fuels” in his book Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors where he mentions the use of vegetable oils for fuel: “For [the] sake of completeness it needs to be mentioned that already in the year 1900 plant oils were used successfully in a diesel engine…a small diesel engine was operated on arachide (peanut) oil by the French Otto Company. It worked so well that the only a few insiders knew about this inconspicuous circumstance. The engine was built for petroleum and was used for the plant oil without any change. In this case also, the consumption experiments resulted in heat utilization identical to petroleum”[ii].

Diesel stated in later papers that the diesel engine was tested on peanut oil at the request of the French government and worked so smoothly that only a few people were aware of it. The engine was made to be used with mineral oil but it worked with vegetable oil without at changes to the engine. At that time, the French government wanted to test the use of peanut or earth-nut oil to power engines, which grows in abundant quantities in their African colonies. This can be cultivated on site and be used to provide power and industry from their own natural resources and not having to import coal or liquid fuel[iii]. Diesel continued his work in major cities such as St Petersburg, and London to show that vegetable oils work as efficiently as the natural mineral oils[iv].

However the world turned a blind eye to these new findings and continued to use mineral oil or petroleum based fuels to power their engines as this was cheaper at the time. As wars broke out throughout history, vegetable oils have still been used as emergency fuels for example during World War II, Brazil stopped exporting cottonseed oil so that it could replace the diesel oil imported from other countries and become self-reliant. Also during this time, researchers in India started researching on vegetable oils for the development of domestic fuels[v]. However the work on using vegetable oils as diesel fuel stopped when petroleum based diesel fuel became easily available at low cost.

In modern times, biofuel is produced from many different sources such as vegetable oils, animal fats, used frying oil and biodegradable wastes. To determine which vegetable oil was used for biofuel production, geography, climate and economics were considered. For example, in the United States, soy bean was considered the prime feedstock as it was widely available and the excess unsold crops were processed and sold as biodiesel. While in tropical countries such as Malaysia, huge plots of land were cleared to grow palm trees to obtain palm oil. Throughout history different feedstocks were investigated these included palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, cottonseed oil, castor oil, non-vegetable sources such as industrial tallow and even fish oils[vi].

Over the last century, the world has become accustomed to petroleum based transportation fuels, lubricants and other useful products derived from fossil fuels. However in recent times, oil prices have been escalating ever since the 1970s fuel crisis and global climate has been changing drastically. Perhaps it is time to learn a few lessons from history and adopt the idea of biofuels for the benefit of humanity and to save the planet instead of taking the easiest and cheapest way out.

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[i] Knothe G, Jon Harlan Van Gerpen, Krahl J (2005) The Biodiesel handbook, AOCS Press, University of Michigan USA pp 2

[ii] Diesel, R., Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors, Verlag Von Julius Springer, Berlin, 1913 Chapter: Liquid fuels

[iii] Diesel, R., The Diesel Oil-Engine, Engineering 93: 395-406 (1912); Chem. Abstr. 6: 1984(1912)

[iv] Diesel, R., The Diesel Oil-Engine and its Industrial Importance particularly for Great Britain, Proc.Inst.Mech.Eng. 179-280 (1912); Chem. Abstr. 7: 1605 (1913)

[v] Chowhury, D.H., S.N. Mukerji, J.S. Aggarwal, and L.C. Verman, Indian Vegetable Fuel Oils for Diesel Engines, Gas Oil Power 37: 80–85 (1942); Chem. Abstr. 36:53309 (1942)

[vi] http://www.new-ag.info/06-6/focuson/focuson2.html

You can follow up on the series on BIOFUELS by clicking on the links below:
Part II , Part III, Part IV